Trade data paints a more complicated picture. The value of U.S. trade with Russia has fallen to its lowest level in decades following the invasion. But last year, Russia still exported about $3 billion worth of goods to the United States, according to U.S. trade figures, mostly fertilizer and platinum.

That figure is significantly higher than the value of U.S. imports from some smaller countries that Mr. Trump targeted, such as Laos and Fiji, prompting questions about whether the White House’s decision to spare Russia was a strategic choice.

Mr. Trump recently threatened to impose tariffs on buyers of Russian oil, a trade that is the lifeline of the country’s war machine, if President Vladimir V. Putin did not cooperate with U.S. efforts to broker a cease-fire in the war in Ukraine.

Mr. Trump may be holding back new economic restrictions on Russia as leverage in the peace talks. Iran, another target of Mr. Trump’s deal-making ambitions, was hit with 10 percent tariffs, the lowest tier on the White House’s list and lower than the rate imposed on Israel, a staunch U.S. ally.

The composition of Russia’s exports could have also played a role. Russia is the third largest foreign supplier of fertilizer to the United States, and the total amount of its fertilizer exports has increased over the past year.

Mr. Trump has been weighing how to protect American farmers, a key constituency, from the effects of his trade wars. Keeping the cost of fertilizer low could be part of that strategy.

“We do need a strong reaction,” Mr. Kukies told the BBC. “It would be naïve to think that if we just sit there and let this happen, things will get better.” He said that he believed Washington was expecting the European Union to respond, but called for it to be in “a measured and constructive way.”

Mr. Trump imposed a 20 percent tariff on European Union goods, and a 25 percent levy on cars and automotive parts. But Monika Schnitzer, a professor of economics at the Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich who is an adviser to the German government, said the uncertainty created by Mr. Trump’s policies, which can be announced or rescinded on a moment’s notice with little explanation, made the situation even worse.

“Companies can adjust to tariffs, but not to threats that change by the hour,” she said. “That damages the economy.”

German carmakers were already bracing for the effects of the 25 percent tariffs that Mr. Trump announced last week and that go into effect on Thursday. Automaking is Germany’s largest industry, and the United States is its most important export destination.

Analysts at Bernstein, a financial research firm, have predicted that the new measures would cost Volkswagen, BMW and Mercedes-Benz, the country’s three leading automakers, $11 billion overall.

The auto companies have assembly plants in the United States but they will not be immune from the tariffs because most vehicles are assembled with parts that come from a patchwork of countries. In recent weeks, sales for BMW and Volkswagen have jumped in the United States, as consumers scramble to get ahead of expected price increases caused by Mr. Trump’s new tariffs.

Calling the sweeping tariffs “a frontal attack on world trade,” Dirk Jandura, president of the German trade association BGA, urged the European Union to swiftly enact counter-tariffs in an effort to end the trade dispute.

Mr. Jandura also urged Germany’s export-dependent industries to rethink their business model. “This is also a wake-up call for us: We have to become more competitive ourselves,” Mr. Jandura said.

But German officials warned that the trade war would ultimately hurt Americans more than the targets of the tariffs. “For consumers in the U.S., the day will not be Liberation Day, but Inflation Day,” Robert Habeck, Germany’s economy minister, told reporters.

They are now among the vast categories of goods subject to additional taxes after President Trump, on Wednesday, imposed universal tariffs on all U.S. trade partners as well as additional, heavier duties on 60 countries he deemed the “worst offenders” of unfair trade practices.

In a sharp shift away from decades of trade policy, Mr. Trump instituted a 10 percent base line duty on all goods imported into the United States. In addition, other nations will be charged a so-called reciprocal tariff at an even higher rate next week.

For the European Union and China, the two largest U.S. trading partners, the White House imposed tariffs of 20 percent and 34 percent. The additional levy on China will be added to a 20 percent tariff previously imposed by Mr. Trump.

Even close allies such as Japan and South Korea were not spared. Neither were countries like Australia and Brazil that buy more from America than they sell to it.

The announcement, which Mr. Trump had hailed as America’s “Liberation Day,” sent shock waves across the world and raised the specter of a global trade war. Stock markets tumbled on the news, as investors were surprised at the size and scope of the tariffs.

In less than three months, Mr. Trump has pronounced tariffs on Canada, Mexico and China along with import duties on steel, aluminum, cars and car parts. The executive order on Wednesday included exemptions for semiconductors, pharmaceuticals and lumber. But analysts think those are not reprieves; they are products next to be targeted.

Allies and adversaries are scrambling to make sense of Mr. Trump’s tariff barrage, which has lifted U.S. import duties to their highest levels in more than a century and showed no sign of relenting. Some threatened to retaliate. Others openly pressed for negotiations, while some quietly pushed for concessions through back channels.

China accused America of “unilateral bullying,” pledging to take “firm countermeasures to safeguard its own rights and interests.” South Korea convened an emergency task force and vowed to “pour all government resources to overcome a trade crisis.” In Brazil, the government of President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva said it was evaluating retaliatory measures.

In an early morning address on Thursday, Ursula von der Leyen, president of the European Commission, said that the global economy will “massively suffer” from the tariffs. While urging negotiation, she said the bloc is preparing further countermeasures in addition to the retaliatory tariffs it had already prepared for the earlier tax on foreign steel and aluminum.

Asia was particularly hard hit by Mr. Trump’s plan. Vietnam, a beneficiary of companies moving production out of China during the first Trump presidency, got slapped with a 46 percent levy. Taiwan, Thailand and Indonesia were all dealt import duties of more than 30 percent. The White House put a 26 percent tariff on imports from India.

For decades, exports have served as a pathway to economic prosperity for developing Asian countries emerging from conflict, crisis or poverty. The latest tariffs punished countries like Taiwan and Japan that have succeeded in modernizing their economies through trade, and they also darkened the prospects for poorer nations like Cambodia and Bangladesh still looking to follow that route.

Cambodia, a producer of clothing and footwear, was hit with a 49 percent tariff. The United States is the country’s largest export market.

“As a small country, we just want to survive,” said Sok Eysan, a spokesman for Cambodia’s ruling Cambodian People’s Party.

Mr. Trump has blamed the sale of inexpensive goods from these countries for the hollowing out of America’s manufacturing sector. But they have also helped to keep inflation at bay, lowering prices for U.S. consumers.

Sarang Shidore, director of the Global South program at the Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft in Washington, D.C., said the tariffs would hit several developing countries hardest, while encouraging much of the world to move more quickly toward an order without the United States at its center.

“When it comes to trade, we are very much in a multipolar world, and alternative markets exist. Though of course there will be pain and transaction costs in diversification,” he said.

Anthony Albanese, the prime minister of Australia, said his country would not respond with retaliatory tariffs, vowing Australia would not “join a race to the bottom that leads to higher prices and slower growth.”

In Japan, officials and trade experts were caught off guard by the size of the new tariff the country will face — 24 percent. It was particularly jarring given Japan’s average tariff on nonagricultural goods is among the lowest globally. Japan called the tariff “extremely regrettable” and vowed to continue seeking an exemption.

Prime Minister Shigeru Ishiba has pledged to increase Japanese investment to roughly $1 trillion, focusing on purchasing more U.S. products like liquefied natural gas.

Speaking before the latest tariffs were announced, Takeshi Niinami, chief executive of Suntory Holdings, a Japanese beverage giant known for premium whiskey brands, said he believed the tariffs could be negotiated down because Japan is the biggest foreign investor in the United States.

“A period of chaos may ensue,” he said. “But ultimately, the situation will stabilize.”

Exiger, a data analytics firm, calculated that Trump’s announcements would result in $600 billion of new U.S. tariffs per year. The bulk of the levy would come from 10 countries, with Chinese exports accounting for a quarter of the additional tariffs at $149 billion. Vietnamese goods would face $63 billion, Taiwanese products $37 billion, and Japanese exports $36 billion in tariffs. German and Irish goods combined would face $41 billion in additional levies.

During the first Trump presidency, tech companies moved some production to Vietnam to protect against a possible trade war with China. One-third of Vietnam’s exports are now electronics.

Apple moved manufacturing of AirPods, watches and iPads over the last several years to Vietnam. It also shifted some iPhone production to India, after years of relying solely on Chinese factories.

South Korean conglomerate Samsung Electronics has invested more than $20 billion in Vietnam since it started opening factories there nearly two decades ago. It now produces more goods in Vietnam than China. Last year, it produced roughly $70 billion worth of goods at its Vietnamese factories, most of it for export.

Mr. Trump’s policies are also complicating decisions for smaller American businesses. Brenden McMorrow, co-founder of Move2Play, a toymaker based in Torrance, Calif., said the company built all of its products in China since it started about nine years ago. But it began to consider factories in Vietnam or India to protect against Chinese import tariffs.

In Vietnam, it found that the factories run by Chinese companies using materials from China were not much cheaper. Instead, it decided to try a test run of manufacturing one of its toys in India — a decision that Mr. McMorrow said looks better with the lofty tariff imposed on Vietnam. It studied whether it could manufacture in the United States, but he said that the costs were roughly five times higher than in China.

And despite the higher cost of tariffs, he doesn’t see U.S. production as any more viable now.

“I don’t think it really makes sense to invest in trying to do a lot of this manufacturing in the U.S. If the next president comes in and just reverses course on all these tariffs, then you’re going to be in a terrible spot,” he said. “It makes more sense to just kind of stick to where we’re currently manufacturing and not make big risky moves.”

Damien Cave, Jack Nicas, Victoria Kim, Alex Travelli, Choe Sang-Hun, Sui-Lee Wee and David Pierson contributed reporting.

Up until the day before Mr. Trump’s tariff announcements on Wednesday, prominent business executives in Tokyo said they were hopeful Japan would be spared. Those hopes were dashed when Mr. Trump said U.S. imports from Japan would face a 24 percent tariff. Last week, he said that cars, Japan’s top export to the United States, would be subject to a 25 percent tax.

While other places affected by the U.S. tariffs — including the European Union, Canada and China — have declared their intentions to retaliate with their own taxes on American goods, Japanese officials have refrained from talking about a similar move.

That is in part because the state of Japan’s economy and the importance of its trade with the United States would make it difficult to do so, analysts say.

Over the past few years, inflation, largely driven by rising energy and food costs, has surged in Japan and strained its economy. Japan’s imports from the United States are largely commodities, including natural gas and agricultural products.

That is why imposing retaliatory tariffs on U.S. imports would be “self-defeating” and “simply not a viable option,” said Stefan Angrick, a senior economist at Moody’s Analytics in Tokyo. “The only remaining strategy is to shift the narrative and emphasize Japan’s willingness to import more commodities,” he said.

American officials, including Mr. Trump, have repeatedly raised concerns about Japan’s non-tariff trade barriers, specifically citing import restrictions on agricultural products like rice and automotive standards that they contend put American manufacturers at a disadvantage.

At a news conference on Thursday, Japan’s chief cabinet secretary, Yoshimasa Hayashi, declined to comment on what Japan would be willing to consider conceding in trade negotiations with the United States. Other officials, including the prime minister, refrained from talk of retaliation.

Japan’s standards for certifying automobiles for use in the country are based on those established by the United Nations, Mr. Hayashi said. He also said that he has explained to his counterparts in Washington the details and logic behind Japan’s rice-import policies.

“Despite this, it is extremely regrettable that the U.S. government has announced the recent reciprocal tariff measures mentioning rice,” Mr. Hayashi said. “In any case, Japan will continue to strongly urge the United States to review its measures.”

The tariffs imposed on Chinese imports by Mr. Trump during his second term have created a severe burden on companies importing from China. These are on top of the tariffs he placed on Chinese imports during his first term.

“There are no winners in a trade war,” the commerce ministry said, urging the United States to use dialogue for resolving trade issues.

The tariffs on China have likely dimmed hope of a meeting between the country’s top leader, Xi Jinping, and Mr. Trump, who has expressed interest in a summit.

Wang Yi, China’s top diplomat, told Russian state media this week that the United States needed to remove the tariffs imposed on China earlier this year before any talks could take place between the two countries.

“If the U.S. side keeps on pressuring and even blackmailing, China surely will be resolute in its countermeasures,” Mr. Wang said.

China imposed tariffs on American exports, such as agricultural products, in response to the two earlier rounds of U.S. tariffs. Beijing’s options this time could include more tariffs, restrictions on U.S. investment in China or export controls on rare earth minerals.